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| IELTS Reading Practice Test-17 With Answers |
READING PASSAGE 1
You
should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which
are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
LONGAEVA:
Ancient
Bristlecone Pine
A
To
understand more about the earth’s history, humans have often looked to the
natural environment for insight into the past. The bristlecone pine (Pinus
longaeva), of the White Mountains in California, has served this purpose
greater than any other species of tree on the planet. Conditions here are
brutal: scant precipitation and low average temperatures mean a short growing
season, only intensified by ferocious wind and mal-nutritious rocky.
Nevertheless, bristlecone pines have claimed these barren slopes as their
permanent home. Evolving here in this harsh environment, super-adapted and
without much competition, bristlecones have earned their seat on the longevity
throne by becoming the oldest living trees on the planet. Results of extensive
studies on bristlecone pine stands have shown that in fact such, environmental
limitations are positively associated with the attainment of great age. This
intriguing phenomenon will be discussed further on.
B
But
exactly how old is old? Sprouted before the invention of Egyptian hieroglyphs
and long before the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, Methuselah is the oldest
bristlecone alive at roughly 4,700 years. Although specimens of this age do not
represent the species’ average, there are 200 trees more than 3,000 years old,
and two dozen more than 4,000. Considering that these high ages are obtained in
the face of such remarkable environmental adversity, the bristlecone pines have
become the focus of much scientific examination over the past half-century.
C
Perhaps
most interested in the bristlecone pine are dendrochronologists or tree-ring
daters. With every strenuous year that passes in the While Mountains, each
bristlecone grows and forms a new outer layer of cambium that reflects a
season’s particular ease or hardship. So while growing seasons may expand or
shrink, the trees carry on, their growth rings faithfully recording the bad
years alongside the goods. Through examining the annual growth rings of both
living and dead specimens, taking thousands of core samples, and by processes
of cross-dating between trees and other qualitative records, scientists have
compiled a continuous tree-ring record that dates back to the last Ice Age
between eight and ten thousand years ago. Among other linked accomplishments,
this record has enhanced the dating process, helping to double-check and
correct the radiocarbon-14 method to more accurately estimate the age of
organic material.
D
Now
more than ever the importance of monitoring the bristlecone is being realized.
As our global climate continues to undergo its most recent and abrupt
atmospheric change, these ancient scribes continue to respond. Since, the rings
of wood formed each year reveal the trees’ response to climatic conditions
during a particular growing season, in their persistence they have left us
natural recordings of the past, markers of the present, and clues to the
future.
E
The
species’ name originates from the appearance of its unusual cones and needles.
The bristlecone’s short, pale needles are also trademarks, bunching together to
form foxtail-like bundles. As is the case of most conifer needles, these
specialized leaves cluster together to shelter the stomata so very little
moisture is lost through them. This adaptation helps the bristlecone
photosynthesize during particularly brutal months. Saving the energy of
constant needle replacement and providing a stable supply of chlorophyll. For a
plant trying to store so much energy, bristlecone seeds are relatively large in
size. They are first reproduced when trees reach ages between thirty and
seventy-five years old. Germination rates are generally high, in part because
seeds require little to no initial stratification. Perhaps the most intriguing
physical characteristic of a mature bristlecone, however, is its ratio of living
to deadwood on harsh sites and how this relates to old age. In older trees,
however, especially in individuals over 1,500 years, a strip-bark trait is
adaptive. This condition occurs as a result of cambium dieback, which erodes
and thereby exposes certain areas of the bole, leaving only narrow bands of
bark intact.
F
The
technique of cambial edge retreat has helped promote old age in bristlecone
pine, but that certainly is no the only reason. Most crucial to these trees’
longevity is their compact size and slow rates of growth. By remaining in most
cases under ten meters tall, bristlecones stay close to the limited water
supply and can hence support more branches and photosynthesizing. Combined with
the dry, windy, and often freezing mountain air, slow growth guarantees the
bristlecones tight, fibrous rings with a high resin content and structural
strength. The absence of natural disaster has also safeguarded the
bristlecone’s lengthy lifespan. Due to a lack of ground cover vegetation and an
evenly spaced layout, bristlecone stands on the White Mountain peaks have been
practically unaffected by the fire. This lack of vegetation also means a lack
of competition for the bristlecones.
G
Bristlecone
pines restricted to numerous, rather isolated stands at higher altitudes in the
southwestern United States. Stands occur from the Rocky Mountains, through the
Colorado Plateau, to the western margin of the Great Basin. Within this natural
range, the oldest and most widely researched stands of bristlecones occur in California’s
the White Mountains. Even just 200 miles away from the Pacific Ocean, the White
Mountains are home to one of this country’s few high-elevation deserts. Located
in the extreme eastern rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada, this region receives
only 12.54 inches of precipitation per year and experiences temperatures
between -20F and +50F. The peaks south of the Owens Valley, are higher up than
they might appear from a distance. Although most summits exist somewhere around
11,000 feet, snow-capped White Mountain Peak, for which the range is named,
stands at 14,246 feet above sea level. That said, to reach areas of a pure
bristlecone is an intense journey all to itself.
H
With
seemingly endless areas of wonder and interest, the bristlecone pines have become
subject to much research over the past half-century. Since the annual growth of
these ancient organisms directly reflects the climatic conditions of a
particular time period, bristlecones are of greatest significance to
dendrochronologists or tree-ring specialists. Dating any tree is simple and can
be done within reasonable accuracy just by counting out the rings made each
year by the plant’s natural means of growth. By carefully compiling a nearly
10,000-year-old bristlecone pine record, these patient scientists have
accurately corrected the carbon-14 dating method and estimated ages of past
periods of global climate change. What makes this record so special to
dendrochronologists, too, is that, nowhere, throughout time, is precisely the
same long-term sequence of wide and narrow rings repeated, because year-to-year
variations in climate are never exactly the same.
I
Historically
the bristlecone’s remote location and gnarled wood have deterred commercial
extraction, but nothing on earth will go unaffected by global warming. If
temperatures rise by only 6 degrees F, which many experts say is likely this
century, about two-thirds of the bristlecones’ ideal habitat in the White
Mountains effectively will be gone. Almost 30,000 acres of National Forest now
preserves the ancient bristlecone, but paved roads, campsites, and self-guided
trails have led only to more human impact. In 1966, the U.S.F.S reported over
20,000 visitors to the Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, a figure which could
exceed 40,000 today. Over the past hundreds of thousands of years, this species
has endured in one of the earth’s most trying environments; they deserve our
respect and reverence. As global climate change slowly alters their
environment, we as humans must do our part to raise awareness and lower our
impact.
Questions 1-4
The
Reading Passage has nine paragraphs A-I
Which
paragraph contains the following information?
Write
the correct letter A-I, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
1
Human activity threats bristlecone pines habitat
2
Explanations for a ring of bristlecone pines
3
An accountable recording provided from the past until now
4
Survived in a hostile environment
Questions 5-7
Choose
the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write
your answers in boxes 5-7 on your answer sheet.
5
According to passage A, what aspect of bristlecone pines attracts author’s
attention?
A
Brutal environment they live
B
Remarkable long age
C
They only live in California
D
Outstanding height
6
Why do we investigate Bristlecone pines in higher altitudes of California’s the
White Mountains?
A
Because of the oldest ones researched in this region
B
Because most bizarre ones are in this region
C
Because precipitation is rich in this region
D
Because sea level is comparatively high in this region
7
Why there are repeated patterns of wide and narrow rings?
A
Because sea level rises which affect tree ring
B
Because tree ring pattern is completely random
C
Because ancient organisms affect their growth
D
Because the variation of climate change is different
Questions 8-13
Complete
the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage
Using NO
MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write
your answers in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
The
bristlecone’s special adaptation is a benefit for photosynthesizing, and
reserving the 8……………………….. of leave replacement and providing sufficient
chlorophyll. Probably because seeds do not rely on primary 9…………………………,
Germination rate is high. Because of cambium dieback, only
narrow 10………………………….. remain complete. Due to multiple factors such as
windy, cold climate and 11…………………………., bristlecones’ rings have a tight
and solid structure full of resin. Moreover, bristlecone stands are safe from
the fire because of little 12…………………………. plants spread in this place. The
summits of Owens Valley is higher than they emerge if you observe from
a 13…………………………..
READING PASSAGE 2
You
should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on
Reading Passage 2 below.
Corporate
Social Responsibility
Broadly
speaking, proponents of CSR have used four arguments to make their case: moral
obligation, sustainability, license to operate, and reputation. The moral
appeal – arguing that companies have a duty to be good citizens and to “do the
right thing” – is prominent in the goal of Business for Social Responsibility,
the leading nonprofit CSR business association in the United States. It asks
that its members “achieve commercial success in ways that honor ethical values
and respect people, communities, and the natural environment.” Sustainability
emphasizes the environment and community stewardship.
A
An
excellent definition was developed in the 1980s by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro
Harlem Brundtland and used by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development: “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.” The notion of a license to
operate derives from the fact that every company needs tacit or explicit
permission from governments, communities, and numerous other stakeholders to do
business. Finally, reputation is used by many companies to justify CSR
initiatives on the grounds that they will improve a company’s image, strengthen
its brand, enliven morale, and even raise the value of its stock.
B
To
advance CSR, we must root it in a broad understanding of the interrelationship
between a corporation and society while at the same time anchoring it in the
strategies and activities of specific companies. To say broadly that business
and society need each other might seem like a cliché, but it is also the basic
truth that will pull companies out of the muddle that their current
corporate-responsibility thinking has created. Successful corporations need a
healthy society. Education, health care, and equal opportunity are essential to
a productive workforce. Safe products and working conditions not only attract
customers but lower the internal costs of accidents. Efficient utilization of
land, water, energy, and other natural resources makes business more
productive. Good government, the rule of law, and property rights are essential
for efficiency and innovation. Strong regulatory standards protect both
consumers and competitive companies from exploitation. Ultimately, a healthy
society creates expanding demand for business, as more human needs are met and
aspirations grow. Any business that pursues its ends at the expense of the
society in which it operates will find its success to be illusory and
ultimately temporary. At the same time, a healthy society needs successful
companies. No social program can rival the business sector when it comes to
creating the jobs, wealth, and innovation that improve standards of living and
social conditions over time.
C
A
company’s impact on society also changes over time, as social standards evolve
and science progresses. Asbestos, now understood as a serious health risk, was
thought to be safe in the early 1900s, given the scientific knowledge then
available. Evidence of its risks gradually mounted for more than 50 years
before any company was held liable for the harms it can cause. Many firms that
failed to anticipate the consequences of this evolving body of research have
been bankrupted by the results. No longer can companies be content to monitor
only the obvious social impacts of today. Without a careful process for
identifying evolving social effects of tomorrow, firms may risk their very
survival.
D
No
business can solve all of society’s problems or bear the cost of doing so.
Instead, each company must select issues that intersect with its particular
business. Other social agendas are best left to those companies in other
industries, NGOs, or government institutions that are better positioned to
address them. The essential test that should guide CSR is not whether a cause
is worthy but whether it presents an opportunity to create shared value – that
is, a meaningful benefit for society that is also valuable to the business.
However, Corporations are not responsible for all the world’s problems, nor do
they have the resources to solve them all. Each company can identify the
particular set of societal problems that it is best equipped to help resolve
and from which it can gain the greatest competitive benefit. Addressing social
issues by creating shared value will lead to self-sustaining solutions that do
not depend on private or government subsidies. When a well-run business applies
its vast resources, expertise, and management talent to problems that it
understands and in which it has a stake, it can have a greater impact on social
good than any other institution or philanthropic organization.
E
The
best corporate citizenship initiatives involve far more than writing a check:
They specify clear, measurable goals and track results over time. A good
example is GE’s program to adopt underperforming public high schools near
several of its major U.S. facilities. The company contributes between $250,000
and $1 million over a five-year period to each school and makes in-kind
donations as well. GE managers and employees take an active role by working
with school administrators to assess needs and mentor or tutor students. In an
independent study of ten schools in the program between 1989 and 1999, nearly
all showed significant improvement, while the graduation rate in four of the
five worst-performing schools doubled from an average of 30% to 60%. Effective
corporate citizenship initiatives such as this one create goodwill and improve
relations with local governments and other important constituencies. What’s
more, GE’s employees feel great pride in their participation. Their effect is
inherently limited, however. No matter how beneficial the program is, it
remains incidental to the company’s business, and the direct effect on GE’s
recruiting and retention is modest.
F
Microsoft’s
Working Connections partnership with the American Association of Community
Colleges (AACC) is a good example of a shared-value opportunity arising from
investments in context. The shortage of information technology workers is a
significant constraint on Microsoft’s growth; currently, there are more than
450,000 unfilled IT positions in the United States alone. Community colleges,
with an enrollment of 11.6 million students, representing 45% of all U.S.
undergraduates, could be a major solution. Microsoft recognizes, however, that
community colleges face special challenges: IT curricula are not standardized,
the technology used in classrooms is often outdated, and there are no
systematic professional development programs to keep faculty up to date.
Microsoft’s $50 million five-year initiative was aimed at all three problems.
In addition to contributing money and products, Microsoft sent employee
volunteers to colleges to assess needs, contribute to curriculum development,
and create faculty development institutes. Note that in this case, volunteers and
assigned staff were able to use their core professional skills to address a
social need, a far cry from typical volunteer programs. Microsoft has achieved
results that have benefited many communities while having a direct – and
potentially significant – impact on the company.
G
At
the heart of any strategy is a unique value proposition: a set of needs a
company can meet for its chosen customers that others cannot. The most
strategic CSR occurs when a company adds a social dimension to its value
proposition, making social impact integral to the overall strategy. Consider
Whole Foods Market, whose value proposition is to sell organic, natural, and
healthy food products to customers who are passionate about food and the
environment. The company’s sourcing emphasizes purchases from local farmers
through each store’s procurement process. Buyers screen out foods containing
any of nearly 100 common ingredients that the company considers unhealthy or
environmentally damaging. The same standards apply to products made internally.
Whole Foods’ commitment to natural and environmentally friendly operating
practices extends well beyond sourcing. Stores are constructed using a minimum
of virgin raw materials. Recently, the company purchased renewable wind energy
credits equal to 100% of its electricity use in all of its stores and
facilities, the only Fortune 500 company to offset its electricity consumption
entirely. Spoiled produce and biodegradable waste are trucked to regional
centers for composting. Whole Foods’ vehicles are being converted to run on
biofuels. Even the cleaning products used in its stores are environmentally
friendly. And through its philanthropy, the company has created the Animal
Compassion Foundation to develop more natural and humane ways of raising farm
animals. In short, nearly every aspect of the company’s value chain reinforces
the social dimensions of its value proposition, distinguishing Whole Foods from
its competitors.
From
Harvard business review 2007
Questions 14-20
The
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose
the correct heading for paragraphs A-G from the list below.
Write
the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.
List
of Headings
i
How CSR may help one business to expand
ii
CSR in many aspects of a company’s business
iii
A CSR initiative without a financial gain
iv
Lack of action by the state of social issues
v
Drives or pressures motivate companies to address CSR
vi
the past illustrates business are responsible for future outcomes
vii
Companies applying CSR should be selective
viii
Reasons that business and society benefit each other
14
Paragraph A
15
Paragraph B
16
Paragraph C
17
Paragraph D
18
Paragraph E
19
Paragraph F
20
Paragraph G
Questions 21-22
Complete
the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage
Using NO
MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write
your answers in boxes 21-22 on your answer sheet.
The
implement of CSR, HOW?
Promotion
of CSR requires the understanding of the interdependence between business and
society. Corporations workers’ productivity generally needs health care,
Education, and given 21……………………… Restrictions imposed by government and
companies both protect consumers from being treated unfairly. Improvement of
the safety standard can reduce the 22……………………… of accidents in the
workplace. Similarly, society becomes a pool of more human needs and
aspirations.
Questions 23-26
Use
the information in the passage to match the companies (listed A-C) with
opinions or deeds below.
Write
the appropriate letters A, B or C in
boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
List
of companies
A
General Electronics
B Microsoft
C Whole foods market
NB You
may use any letter more than once
23
The disposable waste
24
The way company purchases as goods
25
Helping the undeveloped
26
ensuring the people have the latest information
READING
PASSAGE 3
You
should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on
Reading Passage 3 below.
The Exploration of
Mars
A
In
1877, Giovanni Schiaparelli, an Italian astronomer, made drawings and maps of
the Martian surface that suggested strange features. The images from telescopes
at this time were not as sharp as today. Schiaparelli said he could see a
network of lines or canali. In 1894, an American astronomer, Percival Lowell,
made a series of observations of Mars from his own observatory at Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA. Lowell was convinced a great network of canals had been dug to
irrigate crops for the Martian race! He suggested that each canal had fertile
vegetation on either side, making them noticeable from Earth. Drawings and
globes he made show a network of canals and oases all over the planet.
B
The
idea that there was intelligent life on Mars gained strength in the late 19th
century. In 1898, H.G. Wells wrote a science fiction classic, The War of the
Worlds about an invading force of Martians who try to conquer Earth. They use
highly advanced technology (advanced for 1898) to crush human resistance in
their path. In 1917, Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote the first in a series of 11
novels about Mars. Strange beings and rampaging Martian monsters gripped the
public’s imagination. A radio broadcast by Orson Welles on Halloween night in
1938 of The War of the Worlds caused widespread panic across America. People
ran into the streets in their pyjamas-millions believed the dramatic reports of
a Martian invasion.
C
Probes
are very important to our understanding of other planets. Much of our recent
knowledge comes from these robotic missions into space. The first images sent
back from Mars came from Mariner 4 in July 1965. They showed a cratered and
barren landscape, more like the surface of our moon than Earth. In 1969,
Mariners 6 and 7 were launched and took 200 photographs of Mars’s southern
hemisphere and pole on fly-by missions. But these showed little more
information. In 1971, Mariner 9’s mission was to orbit the planet every 12
hours. In 1975, The USA sent two Viking probes to the planet, each with a
lander and an orbiter. The Landers had sampler arms to scoop up Maritain rocks
and did experiments to try and find signs of life. Although no life was found,
they sent back the first colour pictures of the planet’s surface and atmosphere
from pivoting cameras.
D
The
Martian meteorite found in Earth aroused doubts to the above analysis. ALH84001
meteorite was discovered in December 1984 in Antarctica, by members of the
ANSMET project; The sample was ejected from Mars about 17 million years ago and
spent 11,000 years in or on the Antarctic ice sheets. Composition analysis by
NASA revealed a kind of magnetite that on Earth, is only found in association
with certain microorganisms. Some structures resembling the mineralized casts
of terrestrial bacteria and their appendages fibrils of by-products occur in
the rims of carbonate globules and pre-terrestrial aqueous alteration regions.
The size and shape of the objects are consistent with Earthly fossilized
nanobacteria, but the existence of nanobacteria itself is still controversial.
E
In
1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field
that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic
radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars
Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of
magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars’s atmosphere
over the course of several billion years. After mapping cosmic radiation levels
at various depths on Mars, researchers have concluded that any life within the
first several meters of the planet’s surface would be killed by lethal doses of
cosmic radiation. In 2007, it was calculated that DNA and RNA damage by cosmic
radiation would limit life on Mars to depths greater than 7.5 metres below the
planet’s surface. Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering life
on Mars may be at subsurface environments that have not been studied yet. The
disappearance of the magnetic field may be played a significant role in the
process of Martian climate change. According to the valuation of the
scientists, the climate of Mars gradually transits from warm and wet to cold
and dry after magnetic field vanished.
F
NASA’s
recent missions have focused on another question: whether Mars held lakes or
oceans of liquid water on its surface in the ancient past. Scientists have
found hematite, a mineral that forms in the presence of water. Thus, the
mission of the Mars Exploration Rovers of 2004 was not to look for present or
past life, but for evidence of liquid water on the surface of Mars in the
planet’s ancient past. Liquid water, necessary for Earth life and for
metabolism as generally conducted by species on Earth, cannot exist on the
surface of Mars under its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature,
except at the lowest shaded elevations for short periods and liquid water does
not appear at the surface itself. In March 2004, NASA announced that its rover
Opportunity had discovered evidence that Mars was, in the ancient past, a wet
planet. This had raised hopes that evidence of past life might be found on the
planet today. ESA confirmed that the Mars Express orbiter had directly detected
huge reserves of water ice at Mars’ south pole in January 2004.
G
Researchers
from the Center of Astrobiology (Spain) and the Catholic University of the
North in Chile have found an ‘oasis’ of microorganisms two meters below the
surface of the Atacama Desert, SOLID, a detector for signs of life which could
be used in environments similar to subsoil on Mars. “We have named it a
‘microbial oasis’ because we found microorganisms developing in a habitat that
was rich in rock salt and other highly hygroscopic compounds that absorb water”
explained Victor Parro, a researcher from the Center of Astrobiology in Spain.
“If there are similar microbes on Mars or remains in similar conditions to the
ones we have found in the Atacama, we could detect them with instruments like
SOLID” Parro highlighted.
H
Even
more intriguing, however, is the alternative scenario by Spanish scientists: If
those samples could be found to that use DNA, as Earthly life does, as their
genetic code. It is extremely unlikely that such a highly specialised, complex
molecule like DNA could have evolved separately on the two planets, indicating
that there must be a common origin for Martian and Earthly life. Life-based on
DNA first appeared on Mars and then spread to Earth, where it then evolved into
the myriad forms of plants and creatures that exist today. If this was found to
be the case, we would have to face the logical conclusion: we are all Martian.
If not, we would continue to search the life of signs.
Questions 27-32
The
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-H.
Which
paragraph contains the following information?
Write
the correct letter A-H, in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.
27
Martian evidence on Earth
28
Mars and Earth may share the same life origin
29
certain agricultural construction was depicted specifically
30
the project which aims to identify life under similar condition of Mars
31
Mars had experienced terrifying climate transformation
32
Attempts in scientific investigation to find liquid water
Questions 33-36
Choose
the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write
your answers in boxes 33-36 on your answer sheet.
33
How did Percival Lowell describe Mars in this passage?
A
Perfect observation location is in Arizona.
B
Canals of Mars is broader than that of the earth.
C
Dedicated water and agriculture trace are similar to the earth.
D
Actively moving Martian lives are found by observation.
34
How did people change their point of view towards Mars from the 19th
century?
A
They experienced a Martian attack.
B
They learned knowledge of mars through some literature works.
C
They learned a new concept by listening to a famous radio program.
D
They attended lectures given by famous writers.
35
In the 1960s, which information is correct about Mars by a number of Probes
sent to space?
A
It has a landscape full of rock and river
B
It was not as vivid as the earth
C
It contained the same substance as in the moon
D
It had different images from the following probes
36
What is the implication of the project proceeded by a technology
called SOLID in the Atacama Desert?
A
It could be employed to explore organisms under Martian condition.
B
This technology could NOT be used to identify life on similar
condition of Mars.
C
Atacama Desert is the only place that has a suitable environment for organisms.
D
Life had not yet been found yet in the Atacama Desert.
Questions 37-40
Do
the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?
In
boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement is true
FALSE
if the statement is false
NOT
GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
37
The technology of Martian creature was superior to what human had at that
time in every field according to The War of the Worlds.
38
Proof sent by Viking probes has not been challenged yet.
39
Analysis of meteorite from Mars found a substance which is connected to some
germs.
40
According to Victor Parro, their project will be deployed on Mars after they
identified DNA substance on earth.
ANSWERS
1. I
2. C
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. D
8. energy
9. stratification
10. (bands of) bark
11. (dry mountain) air
12. ground cover
13. distance
14. v
15. viii
16. vi
17. vii
18. iii
19. i
20. ii
21. equal opportunity
22. internal costs
23. C
24. C
25. A
26. B
27. D
28. H
29. A
30. G
31. E
32. F
33. C
34. B
35. B
36. B
37. NOT GIVEN
38. FALSE
39. TRUE
40. NOT GIVEN
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